February: Keeping Warm (fol. 1v)

February's labor is not much different from January's. The lord of the house, richly dressed in fur-lined garments and hat, raises the folds of his clothes, to better warm his backside. His attention has been caught by his servant, who enters with flagons of wine.

In the left border are the Virgin holding the Christ Child (for the Feast of the Purification, February 2) and Sts. Blaise (holding his attribute, an iron comb, February 3), Agatha, whose breasts are being removed (February 5), and a generic male saint. The zodiacal sign is Pisces, the Fish.

March: Pruning (fol. 2)



In the early spring month of March, work begins outdoors with the typical labor of pruning the vineyard. Workers trim the leafless vines and tie them to the grape arbor. A wood cask for drink is in the foreground.



Among the scenes depicted in the margins are, at bottom left, St. Gregory with a vision at the altar of Christ (for the Feast of St. Gregory, March 12), and the Annunciation (March 25), at bottom right. Above the seated Virgin is St. Helena, discoverer of the True Cross, whose May 22 feast has been entered here mistakenly on March 31. The zodiacal sign is Aries, the Ram.

April: Picking Flowers and Making Wreaths (fol. 2v)

With April, the landscape becomes green and alive, and the month's activity is not laborious, but one for the leisure class. A foppishly dressed youth, his hands filled with freshly picked spring flowers, waits while his lady friend weaves the blossoms into a garland.

At the top of the right border is a depiction of St. George slaying the dragon (April 23). To the right of the zodiacal sign Taurus, the Bull, are Peter the Martyr, stabbed in the chest with a dagger, his attribute (April 29), and St. Eutropius, depicted with the ax with which he was struck in the head and killed (April 30).

May: Picking Branches (fol. 3)

Another leisurely couple partakes of May's pleasure, the gathering, on the first of the month, of flowering or leafing branches.

While one dog slowly leads the couple along a dirt path marked by branches tied across tree boughs, a second dog runs deeper into the woods on an uncharted track.

The rich border illustrations on the left side of May's calendar include images of Sts. Philip and James (May 1) and the True Cross (for the Feast of the Finding of the True Cross, May 3).

The zodiacal sign for Gemini portrays the Twins in naked embrace, possibly a visual reference to the couple depicted on the top half of the page.

June: Mowing (fol. 3v)

Summer's hard labors begin in June with the mowing of the hay.

Three men rhythmically attack the field with large scythes.

Two women rake the loose hay into stacks. Behind them, a wagon waits to be filled. In the foreground at the right are the workers' bundles of food and casks of drink.

On the right border are Sts. John the Baptist (feast of his Nativity on June 24), Eligius (June 25), a generic male saint, and Peter and Paul (June 29). The zodiacal sign is Cancer, the Crab.

July: Reaping (fol. 4)

The summer harvest continues in July with the reaping of the wheat. Four men, minimally dressed to keep cool, carefully cut the stalks with sickles and lay them in neat bundles. As in June, the foreground features, in the manner of a still life, their containers of food and drink.

Border: At the right are Sts. Margaret, shown emerging from the dragon (July 20), Mary Magdalene, holding her ointment jar (July 22), Christopher, carrying Christ on his back (feast on July 25, but indicated here on July 23), James, as a pilgrim (July 25), and Anne instructing the Virgin (July 26). The zodiacal sign is Leo, the Lion.

August: Threshing (fol. 4v)

The wheat harvest continues in August as the cut stalks are brought in oxcarts to the barn, where three men beat them with jointed flails.

Threshing with flails loosens the kernels of wheat from their stalks so that they can then be winnowed and thus separated from the chaff.

Starting at the top left margin is St. Peter (for the Feast of St. Peter in Chains, August 1), St. Stephen, with a rock on his head (for the feast of the discovery of his relics, August 3), and the Assumption of the Virgin (August 15).

At right are Sts. Louis of Toulouse (August 19) or possibly Bernard of Clairvaux (August 20), Bartholomew the Apostle, holding his butcher's knife (August 24), and King Louis IX of France (August 25).

The two women without attributes probably represent female saints in a general way, since there is only one female saint, Clare (August 12), listed in the month other than the Virgin. The zodiacal sign is Virgo, the Virgin (holding a palm of martyrdom).

September: Treading Grapes (fol. 5)

The task for September is wine making, an activity that requires a division of labor between men and women.

In the fields in the background, seated women pick the grapes, while a man stands, awaiting a full basket to bring to the winepress.

Inside the barn men dump their baskets into large winepresses where the fruit is trampled. Crushed, the grapes are then transferred to a large vat from which, at the bottom, the liquid can be extracted for storing and aging in the nearby barrels.

In the left margin are Sts. Giles, petting a deer (September 1), Anne, shown holding the Virgin (for the Feast of the Birth of the Virgin, September 8), the True Cross (for the Feast of the Exaltation of the Cross, September 14), Matthew the Apostle (September 21), and possibly St. Euphemia (September 16). The zodiacal sign is Libra, the Scales.

October: Sowing and Ploughing (fol. 5v)

In October the winter wheat is sown. The man at left sows the field with grain he holds in his apron. The man on the right plows his field with a team of white horses.

Beneath St. Remigius (October 1) in the left margin is St. Francis, receiving the stigmata (October 4). They are followed by two bishop saints, one of whom is undoubtedly Cerbonius (October 10), and, finally, Pope Calixtus (October 14). The zodiacal sign is Scorpio, the Scorpion.

November: Thrashing for Acorns (fol. 6)

In November the labor is to take the pigs to the forest and rattle the branches of the oak trees so they shed their acorns, thus fattening up the animals.

In the left margin are a large group of saints (for the Feast of All Saints, November 1), Death as a skeleton (for the feast of All Souls, November 2), and Sts. Martin (bishop of Tours, November 11) and Brictius (archbishop of Tours, November 13).

At the right are Sts. Catherine, with a palm of martyrdom and the sword of her decapitation (November 25), Andrew the Apostle, holding his X-shaped cross (November 30), Clement, in papal tiara (November 23), and Cecilia (November 22). The zodiacal sign is Sagittarius, the Archer.

Luke's Lesson: Luke Writing
Border: Annunciation (fol. 9)

Seated in his study, the evangelist Luke sits with his symbol, the ox, at his feet, as he writes the Lesson (Luke 1:26–38) describing the Annunciation and ending with the Virgin's acceptance of God's will.

The events mentioned in the opening works of the text are illustrated in the borders: For In illo tempore. Missus est Gabriel angelus a D[e]o in civitatem Galilee cui nomen Nazareth (In that time the angel Gabriel was sent from God to a town on Galilee called Nazareth), Poyer portrays God the Father as having a prominent role in the Annunciation, directing both Gabriel and the Dove of the Holy Spirit toward the Virgin.

Matthew's Lesson: Matthew Writing
Border: Magi Meeting at the Crossroads (fol. 10v)

As the angel, Matthew's symbol, attends bearing a book, the evangelist sits at his desk writing the text for his Gospel Lesson, which Poyer brought to life with his border illlustration.

In the border the Three Kings, accompanied by their entourages, meet at the crossroads en route to where the star leads them. The text begins, Cum natus esset Ihesus in Bethleem Iude in diebus Herodis Regis, ecce Magi ab Oriente venerunt Ierosolimam (When Jesus was born in Bethlehem of Judea, in the days of King Herod, behold, Magi came from the East to Jerusalem).

Mark's Lesson: Mark Contemplating
Border: Christ Preaching to a Crowd (fol. 12)

Portrayed in an interior setting similar to Matthew's, Mark sits with his symbol, the lion, as he writes his Lesson.

Mark's Lesson opens with these words In illo tempore. Recumbe[n]tibus undecim discipulisapparuit illis Ih[es]us (In that time, Jesus appeared to the eleven disciples). Surrounding the text, Poyer illustrated Christ, depicted with a stern gesture leveled at the group as he reproaches the apostles for their lack of faith and hardness of heart.

Passion According to John: "Ego sum" (fol. 13)

John's Passion is normally illustrated with an image of Christ's Agony in the Garden or, as here, the Ego sum (I am he). The Latin title of the picture derives from the short but dramatic answer Christ gave to the rough band of soldiers who had come with Judas to arrest him. At his two words, the soldiers fell back in amazement. Behind Christ, St. Peter begins to draw his sword.

The iconography of Poyer's nighttime scene can be traced back to the version painted by the Limbourg brothers in Jean, duc de Berry's, Trés Riches Heures (shortly before 1416), a miniature that, like many in his famous manuscript, was highly influential on French illumination.

Within the group of soldiers on the ground Judas can be identified as the bearded figure at the left clutching his moneybag.

"Stabat mater": Lamentation
Border: Deposition (fol. 26)

The half-page miniature that marks the opening of the "Stabat mater": depicts the Lamentation. The Virgin, flanked by John the Evangelist and Mary Magdalene, holds the dead Christ on her lap. Behind them, on Golgotha, looms the empty Cross; the two thieves have yet to be taken down.

The border illustrates the event that took place just before the Lamentation, the Deposition. The Virgin, again accompanied by John and the Magdalene, awaits the delivery of her dead Son's body by Nicodemus and Joseph of Arimathea.

Lauds: Visitation (fol. 40v)

According to Luke (1:36–56), Gabriel also told the Virgin that her cousin Elizabeth, in her old age, also had conceived a son. Soon thereafter, to rejoice, Mary went to visit her cousin, who was six months pregnant with John the Baptist. (Elizabeth was barren until Gabriel appeared to Zacharias, her husband, telling him that his wife would bear him a son that he should name John.)

The burlet on Elizabeth's head, as well as the two purses hanging from her elaborate gold belt, give her an exotic appearance. The man standing behind the pair—his eyes half shut—is Joseph.

When the Virgin entered Elizabeth's house and greeted the infant John leaped in her womb and she was filled with the Holy Spirit. Here, however, as this scene is usually depicted, the meeting takes place outdoors; the Virgin extends her hand to Elizabeth, who folds her hands in prayerful recognition of the forthcoming Savior.

Prime: Nativity (fol. 51v)

Of the four evangelists, only Luke (2:7) provides details, though scant, concerning the Nativity: "And she brought forth her firstborn son, and wrapped him in swaddling clothes, and laid him in a manger, because there was no room for them in the inn." Here, however, the child is shown naked, revealing his maleness, and golden rays emanate from his body.

Details about the Nativity derive from the Revelations of St. Bridget of Sweden (c. 1303–73), which influenced depictions of the Birth of Christ in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. According to Bridget, an ineffable light and splendor radiated from the child. In her description of the scene, St. Bridget notes that the shepherds—three are peering from the background—uninformed whether the child was male or female, wished to confirm that the child was indeed male; they knew that the Messiah should be a son.

The presence of the ox and ass, not mentioned by the Gospels but included by Bridget, had already been exegetically connected with the Nativity because they were thought to fulfill the prophecy of Isaiah (1:3) that the "ox knoweth his owner, and the ass his master's crib."

Sometimes, as here, the animals are not equal witnesses, but represent the contrast between the Old and New Dispensation, or the Old and New Law. The ox, symbolizing the New Law (of Christ) knowingly looks on, while the view of the other, the Old Law (of Moses), is obscured behind the Virgin, and thus uncomprehending. After the birth, said Bridget, the Virgin immediately worshiped the child, as did Joseph.

The partially obscured object in the lower left corner is the saddle upon which Mary rode during her trip to Bethlehem, where the prophets said that the Messiah would be born.

Terce: Annunciation to the Shepherds (fol. 56v)

The Annunciation to the Shepherds, like the Nativity, is only recounted by Luke (2:8–14). Poyer, however, chose not to emphasize the nocturnal appearance of the single annunciatory angel amid the brightness of God but the later moment when the angel, joined by others from the heavenly hosts, sang the familiar "Glory to God in the Highest, and peace on earth to men of good will."

Poyer illustrates the Angels of the Annunciation singing their familiar "Glory to God in the Highest, and on earth peace to men of good will" by adding the text on the scroll that they present: Gloria in exelssi [sic: excelsis] Deo et in terra pax.

Wooden sheds in the background contain more sheep and two shepherds who are not yet aware of the angel's good tidings.

Three shepherds in the fore- ground, seen from the back or side, look up and receive the tidings. One holds a staff while another with a bagpipe has a second instrument—a flute— tucked into his belt; the shepherdess holds a distaff.

One wonders if the solitary and prominently placed goat amid the sheep would have recalled Matthew 25:32, where the future Son of Man would come to judge and separate the blessed from the evil, "just as the shepherd separates the sheep from the goats."

Sext: Adoration of the Magi (fol. 61v)

In Poyer's Adoration, the Virgin, in an act of humility, sits on the ground as each of the Magi presents his gift to the child standing on her lap. The innate nobility of the Magus is achieved by some of Poyer's most inspired painting, especially evident in his closely observed facial features, gold earring, and exotic turban.

Caspar, the name supplied for the oldest Magus, has removed his crown in deference to Christ as King, kneels and presents gold; the second, holding a chalice with incense, waits his turn; while the youngest, still at a distance, stands erect and holds a monstrance.

Poyer designed his compositions like stage sets: the ruinous stone arches of the stable will reappear in the Massacre of the Innocents (cf. folio 69v), and the ox and ass eat hay from the wattled manger that previously served as Christ's cradle.

In the later Middle Ages, when the Magi were connected with the three continents known then (Europe, Africa, Asia), Balthazar was increasingly depicted as a black man. In some late- fifteenth-century paintings, however, as here, it was the youngest Magus who was so depicted.

Adoration of the Magi
According to the Gospel of Matthew (2:1–12), wise men from the East who saw the star signifying the birth of the King of the Jews went to adore him at Jerusalem, only to discover that he was born in Bethlehem (fulfilling the prophecy of Micheas 5:2). Since the wise men offered three gifts—gold, frankincense, and myrrh—it was assumed as early as the third century that they were three; about the same time they were redefined as kings, and by the ninth century they were supplied with the familiar names of Caspar (the oldest), Balthazar, and Melchior (the youngest). In the later Middle Ages, when the Magi were connected with the three continents known then (Europe, Africa, Asia), Balthazar was increasingly depicted as a black man. Their gifts were also given various explanations. According to St. Bernard of Clairvaux (1090–1153), the gold gave testimony to the Virgin's poverty, the incense purified the smell of the stable, and myrrh strengthened the child's limbs (driving out the worms from his entrails). For the Venerable Bede (672/73–735) they signified the royalty, divinity, and humanity of Christ: gold for royal tribute to the highest king; incense for divine worship since he was God; and myrrh for burial, foreshadowing his own death, since he was a mortal man. These explanations were popularized in printed editions of the Golden Legend (compiled by Jacobus de Voragine before 1267).

None: Presentation in the Temple (fol. 65v)

The traditional illustration for None is the Presentation of Christ in the Temple. According to Luke (2:22–40), the Holy Family would be met by Simeon, who was inspired by the Holy Spirit to recognize, before his own death, the Savior.

The altar itself, complete with a blue canopy and red curtains, is situated within a Renaissance interior with walls decorated with pilasters framing large red and green marble panels, echoing the rows of colored floor marbles. The five large crosses that decorate the altar cloth, suggesting the five wounds Christ would endure on the Cross, may allude to Simeon's vision.

As was common in later medieval art, Poyer has identified Simeon with the high priest of the Temple; he would proclaim that the Lord could now let him depart in peace, having seen his salvation. The famous Canticle of Simeon, beginning Nunc dimittis (Now you may dismiss me), does occur in the Hours of the Virgin but at Compline. Poyer has given him a halo because he was subsequently made a saint; the letters on the hem of his garment suggest Hebrew. After blessing the Holy Family, Simeon told Mary that her child was set for the fall and resurrection of many in Israel and a sword would pierce her own soul.

The unusual presence of a Franciscan friar behind the altar suggests that the original owner may have had some connection or special devotion to that order, which was especially favored by French royalty at this time. The manuscript's Calendar has a strong emphasis on Franciscans. They were known as Gray Friars because of the color of their habit, which was originally gray (but later brown).

Luke 2:22–40
The only biblical account for the Presentation of Christ in the Temple is Luke's (2:22–40): "After the days of her purification . . . they carried him to Jerusalem, to present him to the Lord . . . as it is written that every male opening the womb shall be called holy to the Lord, and to offer a sacrifice . . . a pair of turtledoves or two young pigeons." (The sacrificial birds, following Leviticus 12:6–8, were for the purification of women after childbirth.)

Vespers: Massacre of the Innocents and Flight into Egypt (fol. 69v)

While the Massacre of the Innocents is less common than the Flight into Egypt as the Vesper illustration, Poyer managed to include both. As the slaughter takes place in the foreground, the Holy Family departs for Egypt in the background—as can be seen through the stone ruins.

Two mothers futilely attempt to keep their children from soldiers, while a woman on the left wails uncontrollably over her dead baby. The Holy Innocents were regarded as the first martyrs, and their feast day (three days after Christmas) was already celebrated by the early Church.

Massacre of the Innocents
Following his unique account of the Adoration of the Magi, Matthew continues the narrative (2:13–18) with the Flight into Egypt and the Massacre of the Innocents. Herod, learning that a future ruler of Israel would come from Bethlehem, ordered the slaughter of all male children two years old and younger living in or near Bethlehem. An angel had already appeared to Joseph in his sleep, telling him to take Jesus and his mother to Egypt until the death of Herod. (Biblical scholars, including Matthew, have recognized that the Massacre and Flight provided the pretext for the fulfillment of Hosea's prophecy [Hosea 11:1] that, like Moses, the Messiah would come up out of Egypt.)

David and Uriah (fol. 108v)

In the miniature, Bathsheba's husband, one knee deferentially bent, has already received the sealed order from David, while his white horse stands ready in the background. A shadowy figure stands by the canopied bed to the left, where the sin was consummated.

To solve the problem of Bathsheba's pregnancy, the king sent a letter to Joab ordering him to place Uriah in the front of the battle, where he would surely be killed (2 Samuel 11:14–15).

Although King David in Penance is the usual and obvious subject selected to mark the Penitential Psalms, his adultery with Bathsheba is also popular at this time. Somewhat rarer is the episode selected here, which occurred after his adultery, when he summoned Uriah, her husband, to Jerusalem. He had conveniently been away, serving in the army under Joab.

Penitential Psalms and Litany (fols. 107v–127)
According to medieval tradition, the Seven Penitential Psalms were written by King David as penance for his grievous sins. In any case, the seven Psalms (6, 31, 37, 50, 101, 129, and 142) were long associated with atonement and had already formed part of Jewish liturgy; they were certainly known by Christians in the West by the sixth century, when Cassiodorus, a Roman historian, statesman, and monk, regarded them as a sevenfold means of obtaining forgiveness.

Theme of Miniature
This theme was probably selected to introduce the first Penitential Psalm because David's order for Uriah's death was considered a sin of "anger." The Psalm is the only one to include the name of a specific Deadly Sin, ira, the Latin word for anger. In addition, the Penitential Psalms in some early-sixteenth-century printed Parisian Horae are illustrated by the same subject, along with a rubric stating that the first Psalm should be invoked against that sin.

Matins: Feast of Dives
Border: Dives in Hell (fol. 134v)

The second illustration for the Office of the Dead is smaller and is laid out like the Calendar and Suffrages, where half-page miniatures are in full color and marginal scenes in grisaille.

In the miniature the elegantly dressed rich man and his wife are about to enjoy a meal; Dives, who receives a glance from his wife, looks with disdain at a poor man named Lazarus entering the banquet hall.

The main subject of this illustration is the Feast of Dives, which derives from Luke's parable of the rich man (16:19–31). According to the story an unnamed rich man (Latin: dives) ate sumptuous meals every day in full view of a poor man named Lazarus.

Lazarus sought only the crumbs that fell from the rich man's table; however, while none were given him, the rich man's dogs came and licked Lazarus's sores. The beggar died and was carried by angels to Abraham's bosom.

A disinterested attendant stands nearby, while three dogs head toward Lazarus, who carries a small wooden keg and a clapper to warn passersby that he is a leper.

Abraham replied that he had received good things in his lifetime, while Lazarus had received evil things, but now Lazarus would be comforted while he would be tormented. It is, of course, significant that the poor man is worthy of being named while the rich man is not (this Lazarus, not to be confused with the Lazarus resurrected by Christ, has his feast day on June 21).

Down below, in the flames of hell (appropriately painted in red grisaille), Dives sees Lazarus in the bosom of Abraham (in heavenly blue grisaille) and points to his mouth, a reference to his unfulfilled request. The rich man died and ended up in hell, where, in considerable torment, he lifted his eyes and saw the dead Lazarus cradled by the patriarch. Suffering hell's flames (cf. lower half of image), the rich man asked Abraham to have Lazarus dip the tip of his finger in water and cool his tongue.